Phytonutrients

Definition

Phytonutrients are plant-based compounds that have health benefits but are not essential to life. Also called phytochemicals or dietary phytochemicals, phytonutrients are sometimes defined as bioactive substances associated with reduced risk for various chronic diseases. At least 900 different phytonutrients have been identified, and there are probably thousands more awaiting characterization.

Purpose

Unlike macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, fats) and micronutrients (vitamins, minerals), which are needed for growth, metabolism, and other body functions, phytonutrients are not as essential. Despite this, phytonutrients appear to have a wide range of positive activities in the human body. Herbs and spices used for flavoring foods are associated with a long list of potential beneficial effects on human health. Over 40% of medicines prescribed in the United States contain chemicals derived from plants. Botanists and chemists actively search the worldwide plant kingdom for new phytochemicals.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities

The majority of the health benefits from phytonutrients are attributable to their antioxidative and antiinflammatory activities. Oxidative stress and chronic inflammation are considered primary causes of agerelated diseases and conditions. Oxidative stress results from the accumulation of free radicals. These are unstable molecules that are normal products of metabolism, as well as by-products of environmental toxins. Oxidative stress and damage caused by free radicals are associated with the development of cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. The majority of known phytonutrients have antioxidant activities that counteract free radicals and help protect the body from the effects of oxidation. Antioxidants may help prevent, delay, and/or fight cancer, heart disease, and eye disorders such as cataracts. Cauliflower and other cruciferous vegetables contain phytonutrients with anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-cancer properties. Some medicinal plants derive their healing properties from the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of their phytonutrients.

Ways phytonutrients may protect human health

Serve as antioxidants

Enhance immune response

Enhance cell-to-cell communication

Alter estrogen metabolism

Convert to Vitamin A (beta-carotene is metabolized to vitamin A)

Cause cancer cells to die (apoptosis)

Repair DNA damage caused by smoking and other toxic exposures

Detoxify carcinogens through the activation of the cytocrome P450 and Phase II enzyme systems

More research is needed to firmly establish the mechanisms of action of the various phytochemicals.

SOURCE: Cao, Jay. “Phytonutrients are Good for Bone Health.” Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.ars.usda.gov/plains-area/gfnd/gfhnrc/docs/news-2011/phytonutrients-are-good-for-bone-health (accessed April 19, 2018).

Other health benefits

In addition to anti-inflammatory activities that help prevent coronary artery disease, phytonutrients in apples, grapes, berries, plums, and other fruits and vegetables may improve blood vessel function, reduce the negative effects of LDL (“bad”) cholesterol, and help prevent coronary artery disease. Other phytonutrients appear to enhance the immune response, facilitate communications between cells, alter cellsignaling pathways that regulate gene expression, or have antibacterial properties. Antibacterial phytonutrients may interfere with the adhesion of pathogens (disease-causing organisms) to human cells.

Some phytonutrients, called phytoestrogens, can function as human estrogens and affect estrogen metabolism. They may help reduce menopausal symptoms and help prevent osteoporosis.

Description

Most phytonutrients are plant pigments or secondary metabolites (by-products of plant metabolism). They often play defensive roles in plants, protecting them from harmful ultraviolet radiation, disease, pests, predators, and other plants. Medicinal plants are often rich in phytonutrients, and many herbs and spices contain phytonutrients with therapeutic properties. Many phytochemicals are used as medicines and digestive aids.

Types of phytonutrients

There are three main classes of phytonutrients:

More often, phytonutrients are classified according to their chemical structures. Major classes include:

CAROTENOIDS. Carotenoids are the red, yellow, and orange pigments in fruits and vegetables. Carotenes are antioxidant carotenoids that may decrease the risk of heart disease and stroke and protect against some cancers and age-related macular degeneration. Alpha-carotene in carrots; beta-carotene in leafy green and yellow vegetables such as carrots, broccoli, sweet potato, and pumpkin; and beta-cryptoxanthin in citrus fruits, peaches, and apricots are converted to vitamin A in the body. These may improve immunity and help alleviate arthritis. Other carotenoids include lutein and zeaxanthin, which can help maintain a healthy heart and normal vision, help protect the eyes from age-related macular degeneration and cataracts, and possibly help fight cancer. Lycopene—the red pigment in tomatoes, pink grapefruit, watermelon, and guava—is another important carotenoid.

POLYPHENOLS. Polyphenols and phenolic acids are secondary metabolites with antioxidant activities that are found in a wide variety of plants. Nonflavonoid polyphenols include coumarins such as p-coumaric acid, curcuminoids in turmeric, resveratrol in grapes and red wine, and ellagic acid. Polyphenolic flavonoids include:

OTHER PHYTONUTRIENTS. Other common phytonutrients include:

Lignans in whole grains have strong antioxidant and phytoestrogenic activities. Intestinal microflora help convert plant lignans into the mammalian lignans, enterolactone and enterodiol, which may help protect against chronic diseases including diabetes, heart disease, and hormone-related cancers. Lignans may decrease the risk of breast cancer by helping fat cells remove excess estrogen.

Sources of phytonutrients

Carbohydrate-rich foods such as fruits, vegetables, beans, and whole and enriched grains are the major sources of phytonutrients. Among the best sources are blueberries and other berries, oranges, tomatoes, green beans, soybeans, dark leafy greens, carrots, sweet potatoes, and green teas. Phytonutrients in berries are heat stable, and brief cooking may even increase their antioxidative activities. Other beans, pomegranates, grapefruit, and nuts are also high in phytonutrients. Black beans are similar to plums in antioxidant content and have ten times more antioxidants than tomatoes. Dark greens such as broccoli, kale, watercress, arugula, and collard greens may have anticancer activities. Sun-exposed loose-leaf greens have far more phytonutrients than tightly closed greens, and external leaves are richer in polyphenols than leaves in the center. Among cooking oils, extravirgin olive oil has the most phytonutrients.

For specific phytonutrients:

KEY TERMS
Antioxidants—
Molecules that prevent oxidation. Antioxidants react with free radicals to prevent them from damaging cell walls, DNA, and other cellular components.
Carcinogen—
A substance known to cause cancer.
Carotenes—
Various orange or red carotenoids that can be converted to vitamin A.
Carotenoids—
Red or yellow plant pigments and phytonutrients with various biological activities in the human body.
Catechins—
Polyphenolic flavonoid phytonutrients.
Cholesterol—
A fat-like substance that is made by the human body and consumed in animal products. Cholesterol is used to form cell membranes and process hormones and vitamin D. High cholesterol levels contribute to the development of atherosclerosis.
Ellagic acid—
A phenolic antioxidant in many fruits and vegetables.
Epigallocatecin gallate (EGCG)—
A strong antioxidant in green tea, made from gallic acid and a polyphenolic flavonoid catechin.
Flavonoids—
A large group of aromatic compounds that include many plant pigments and antioxidants.
Free radical—
A reactive atom or group of atoms that damages cells, proteins, and DNA.
Inflammation—
A response to irritation, infection, or injury, often resulting in pain, redness, and swelling.
Lignans—
A class of plant phenolic compounds with antioxidant and estrogenic activities.
Limonoids—
A class of phytochemicals in citrus fruits and other plants that may have health benefits.
Naringin—
A flavonoid responsible for the bitter taste in grapefruit. Naringin has potential health benefits but can also interact with certain medications.
Oxidation—
A chemical reaction in which electrons are lost from a molecule or atom. In the body, oxidation can damage cells, tissues, and DNA, leading to cardiovascular disease or cancer.
Oxidative stress—
Physiological stress caused by damage from free radicals and associated with aging and insufficient antioxidant activity.
Phenolic acids—
Common plant metabolites that can function as phytonutrients.
Phytochemicals—
Phytonutrients; chemical compounds in plants.
Phytoestrogens—
Plant compounds that have activities similar to the female hormone estrogen.
Polyphenols—
Antioxidant phytochemicals that prevent or neutralize the effects of free radicals.
Trolox equivalent (TE)—
A measurement of antioxidant activity based on Trolox, a commercial vitamin E derivative.

Although phytonutrients are most often associated with fruits and vegetables, whole grains are full of phytonutrients such as phenolic acids. The total phenolic acid concentration in whole grains corresponds to the total antioxidant activity in the grain. Phytonutrients in whole grains appear to be important for digestive health. Whole grains have significantly more phytonutrients than refined grains. Refining whole grains into white flour removes the bran and inner germ layers that are rich in phytonutrients, but processing, including heating and milling, helps release some phytonutrients from their bound forms so that they are more available to the body. Phytonutrients are also released during digestion in the colon, so that their effects can be exerted both locally and throughout the body after absorption into the bloodstream. For example, an enzyme in the human intestine and in intestinal microflora releases ferulic acid from cereal bran.

Phytonutrients in different foods appear to complement each other. Their effects may be increased when combined, such as when mixing fruits such as strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and cranberries in juices or smoothies. The anti-inflammatory effects of whole-grain phytonutrients may work with dietary fiber and minerals in whole grains and with phytonutrients in fruits and vegetables.

Recommended dosages

Little information is available about the phytonutrient content of typical diets and specific foods, nor are the amounts required for health benefits known. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) maintains databases of nutrient compositions of foods, including phytonutrients. It is known that most Americans do not consume the recommended daily servings of fruits and vegetables containing phytonutrients.

A food's antioxidant capacity, or total antioxidant potential, is measured in Trolox equivalents (TE), based on the antioxidant capacity of a vitamin E derivative:

Phenolic acid content is measured in mg of gallic acid equivalents per 100 g. Corn is the highest at 265, followed by wheat (136), oats (111), and rice (95). Compared with whole-wheat flour, refined wheat flour has lost:

Precautions

Freshness and preparation are important for obtaining phytonutrients. Antioxidants and other phytonutrients break down from oxidation when exposed in light and air. Fresh produce may lose half of its phytonutrients during storage and cooking. Thus, frozen produce can have more phytonutrients than older fresh produce.

QUESTIONS TO ASK YOUR DOCTOR

Although ample evidence supports the health benefits of diets rich in fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and nuts, evidence that these effects are due to specific phytonutrients is very limited. Because plantbased foods are complex mixtures of bioactive compounds, information on the potential health effects of individual phytochemicals is linked to information on the health effects of foods that contain them. Furthermore, very little is known about the ways in which phytonutrients interact. The health effects of most phytonutrients have not been studied in isolation, and the isolated compounds may not provide all of the health benefits of whole plant foods. For example, garlic pills, extracts, and other supplements may lack the potential cholesterol-lowering phytonutrients found in whole garlic. Carotenoids and flavonoids are believed to have more health-promoting properties when consumed together in food rather than as separate supplements. For people who need supplemental nutrition, whole-food supplements are preferable.

Manufacturers regularly introduce new combinations of so-called “functional beverages”—juices, teas, soft drinks, and flavored waters with phytonutrients and other ingredients—that promise to improve mood and memory, increase energy, relieve stress, or dissolve fat. Claims for phytonutrient supplements and functional beverages are unproven and have not been found to have any particular benefits in healthy people. In addition, ingredients and amounts may be neither identified nor standardized, and their safety is unknown. Such products are no substitute for healthy diets and lifestyles.

Side effects

Phytonutrients in supplements are in a concentrated, more potent form than in whole foods and may cause allergic reactions in some people. People should seek medical advice before taking phytonutrient supplements, especially pregnant and breastfeeding women and anyone with a medical condition. For example, cauliflower contains goitrogens that can interfere with the functioning of the thyroid gland.

Interactions

Phytonutrients interact in plants and presumably in the human body as well; however, very little is known about these interactions. For example, naringin increases the oral bioavailability of calcium-channel blockers and may enhance the effects of these drugs, resulting in a serious drop in blood pressure. Naringin also inhibits the breakdown of various substances such as caffeine, coumarin, and estrogens.

See also Anti-inflammatory diets ; Antioxidants ; Cancer ; Carotenoids ; Macronutrients ; Nutrigenomics .

Resources

BOOKS

Calbom, Cherie. The Juice Lady's Remedies for Diabetes: Juices, Smoothies, and Living Foods Recipes for Your Ultimate Health. Lake Mary, FL: Siloam, 2016.

Colbert, Don. Dr. Colbert's Guide to Vitamins and Supplements. Lake Mary, FL: Siloam, 2016.

Higdon, Jane, and Victoria J. Drake. An Evidence-Based Approach to Phytochemicals and Other Dietary Factors. 2nd ed. New York: Thieme, 2012.

Hunter, Fiona, and Caroline Bretherton. Super Clean Super Foods. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2017.

Jones, Keith. Diet and Nutrition Sourcebook. 5th ed. Detroit: Omnigraphics, 2016.

Pedersen, Stephanie. Berries: The Complete Guide to Cooking with Power-Packed Berries. New York: Sterling, 2016.

Pedersen, Stephanie. Roots: The Complete Guide to Underground Superfood. New York: Sterling, 2017.

Roy, Madhumita, Apurba Mukherjee, Sutapa Mukherjee, et al. “Phytonutrients from Fruits and Vegetables in Breast Cancer Control.” In Anticancer Properties of Fruits and Vegetables: A Scientific Review, edited by Ajaikumar B. Kunnumakkara, 75–97. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific, 2015.

Sisson, Mark. The Primal Kitchen Cookbook: Eat Like Your Life Depends on It. Oxnard, CA: Primal Blueprint, 2017.

PERIODICALS

Comber, Mary. “Turn Everyday Foods into Superfoods.” Health & Fitness (June 2017): 56–9.

Robinson, Jo. “Grow These Nutritious Crop Varieties.” Mother Earth News 268 (February/March 2015): 36–39.

Tufts University. “What's the Right Menu to Control Hypertension?” Tufts University Health & Nutrition Letter. 34, no. 5 (July 2016): 4–5.

Zaraska, Marta. “Bitter Truth.” New Scientist 227, no. 3032 (August 1, 2015): 26.

WEBSITES

Agricultural Research Service. “USDA Food Composition Databases.” U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/nutrients/index (accessed May 14, 2018).

Cao, Jay. “Phytonutrients are Good for Bone Health.” Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.ars.usda.gov/plains-area/gfnd/gfhnrc/docs/news-2011/phytonutrients-are-good-for-bone-health (accessed May 14, 2018).

Fruits & Veggies—More Matters. “What Are Phytonutrients?” Produce for Better Health Foundation. https://www.fruitsandveggiesmorematters.org/what-are-phytochemicals (accessed May 14, 2018).

Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute. “Phytochemicals.” Oregon State University. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals (accessed May 14, 2018).

USDA. “Phytonutrients.” Nutrition.gov . https://www.nutrition.gov/subject/whats-in-food/phytonutrients (accessed May 14, 2018).

ORGANIZATIONS

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 120 S. Riverside Plaza, Ste. 2190, Chicago, IL, 60606-6995, (312) 899-0040, (800) 877-1600, amacmunn@eatright.org, http://www.eatright.org .

Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Jamie L. Whitten Bldg., 1400 Independence Ave. SW, Washington, DC, 20250, https://www.ars.usda.gov .

Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, 307 Linus Pauling Science Ctr., Corvallis, OR, 97331, (541) 737-5075, Fax: (541) 737-5077, lpi@oregonstate.edu, http://lpi.oregonstate.edu .

Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health, 6100 Executive Blvd., Rm. 3B01, MSC 7517, Bethesda, MD, 20892-7517, (301) 435-2920, Fax: (301) 480-1845, ods@nih.gov, https://ods.od.nih.gov .

Margaret Alic, PhD

  This information is not a tool for self-diagnosis or a substitute for professional care.